Introduction

The global demand for batteries is projected to increase fourteenfold , with the European Union expected to . This is primarily fueled by the rise of electric mobility. In addition to climate change impacts, such as .

Most environmental impacts of batteries stem from two main stages: (a) the mining and processing of CRM and (b) their disposal at the end of life. Mining for CRMs raises significant environmental and human rights concerns, particularly as , often in protected regions with high mine density. Additionally, improper battery disposal can contaminate soil and water, negatively impacting human health. In 2021, the EU's end-of-life battery collection rate was for some types of .

Therefore, a major lever to reduce GHG emissions in this sector is to increase the lifetime of batteries, so that fewer batteries are produced. One method for increasing the battery's lifetime is the or through regeneration and refurbishing, giving it a second life.

Battery second life involves restoring previously owned and used batteries to a functional state for continued use, thereby delaying their entry into waste streams. This process includes thorough testing, cleaning, repairs, and, when necessary, replacing components to ensure optimal performance. Extending the lifespan of batteries reduces the production of new batteries and reduces hazardous waste. Refurbishment and regeneration of batteries face barriers from high costs of repair, market fragmentation, and lack of consumer trust and acceptance.